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Materials for printing, which the 3D printer is designed for.

Most modern 3D printing technologies (see above) allow the use of more than one material, and these materials vary significantly in properties. Therefore, the choice of materials is limited not only by technology but also by the capabilities of a specific printer, and this parameter cannot be neglected when making a choice. Nowadays, you can mostly find devices designed for such materials (in alphabetical order): ABS plastic, ASA, BVOH, Carbon, CPE, Flex, HIPS, Nylon, PC, PETG, PLA, PP, PVA, SBS, TPE, Wood, photopolymer resin. A separate category is food 3D printers, which allow you to create sculptures from chocolate, cream, etc.

Here is a description of the most widespread materials today (both mentioned above and some others):

— ABS. One of the most common types of the...rmoplastics nowadays; it is popular in 3D printing. Despite its low cost, ABS is quite practical: finished products are strong, fairly resistant to deformation and impacts, insensitive to moisture, and many aggressive liquids (alkalis, oils, a large amount of detergents); they also have a good operating temperature range (on average from -40 to 90 °C). Moreover, the melting of such plastic requires relatively low temperatures. ABS has three main disadvantages. Firstly, it is sensitive to direct sunlight, wears out quickly under such conditions (although this depends on the specific grade). Secondly, this material emits harmful fumes when heated, so it is advisable to use protective equipment during work or at least ensure effective room ventilation. Thirdly, ABS tends to adhere strongly to the print bed, requiring various additional tricks such as heating the print bed, using special thermal tape, etc. It should also be noted that finished products from this material have a rough surface, although this can be an advantage depending on the situation.

— PLA. Another popular material for 3D printing, a direct competitor to ABS. One of the key advantages of PLA is considered to be its "naturalness" and environmental safety: it is produced from plant materials (mainly corn and sugarcane), is biodegradable, and safe when heated. Additionally, this type of thermoplastic has a lower melting temperature and almost does not stick to the print bed. On the other hand, the downside of the mentioned environmental friendliness is a limited service life: PLA plastic decomposes fairly quickly (from a few weeks to a few years, depending on the grade). Other noticeable disadvantages are the price (almost twice as high as ABS) and brittleness (which somewhat complicates printing—a heavily bent filament easily breaks). It should also be noted that this type of plastic is not soluble in acetone and requires other solvents.

— Photopolymer resin. Material used for printing by SLA and DLP technologies (see "Printing Technology") and also widespread in MJM printers, where it has practically replaced thermoplastics. The name is due to the fact that in its initial state, the material has a liquid consistency and hardens (polymerizes) under intense lighting. Nowadays, there is a large variety of photopolymer resins, differing in technological characteristics (viscosity, hardening speed, light sensitivity) and practical features (hardened photopolymer can possess properties of different materials). In any case, printing with such materials is characterized by very high accuracy, although photopolymers are noticeably more expensive than thermoplastics.

— Nylon. In 3D printing, nylon has been used relatively recently, which is why it is encountered less frequently than other popular thermoplastics. Compared to ABS, this material requires higher temperatures, emits more harmful substances, and in its finished form tends to accumulate moisture and lose strength, which imposes certain usage restrictions. On the other hand, nylon products are not as hard, which in some cases is an advantage, particularly in medical applications: from such material, you can print splints and prostheses with a characteristic lattice structure, combining lightness and strength.

And here are detailed descriptions of the other, rarer materials:

— ASA. Weather-resistant material created to eliminate the main drawback of ABS—sensitivity to environmental exposure (primarily sunlight). As a result, it is a sufficiently strong and rigid material that is also quite simple to print and does not lose its properties when exposed to the open air for extended periods. ASA products are suitable even for use in cars; another advantage of this kind of thermoplastic is very little shrinkage when cooling. The downsides include a higher cost than ABS.

— BVOH. Auxiliary water-soluble filament used for printing support structures with protruding and overhanging elements as well as movable mechanisms. BVOH stands for Butenediol Vinyl Alcohol Copolymer. The filament has excellent interlayer adhesion and fuses well with the main model material, ensuring supports do not detach from the part during 3D printing. The optimal extrusion temperature for this plastic is in the range of 210 to 220 °C. The material easily dissolves in plain water, allowing you to create a strong foundation where supports are needed and achieve a smooth surface without thread residues when used in printing other types of plastic (PLA, ABS, and PET).

— Carbon. A printing material based on a polymer with added carbon fiber, developed by Carbon Inc, and has the same name. It is an excellent alternative to Nylon-plastic, boasting high interlayer adhesion and low shrinkage. Carbon also has high strength and resistance to thermal effects. This material is used for creating functional parts, prototypes, tools, mechanically loaded parts, housings for various devices, and repair parts for household appliances in various industries (including automotive, medical, etc.). Carbon plastic is suitable for almost all models of desktop 3D printers.

— CPE. Co-polyester CPE is a chemically resistant and relatively strong printing material characterized by high impact toughness and resistance to thermal effects. It usually includes polyethylene (PE) and polyester in different proportions. CPE has good strength and flexibility, which makes it suitable for creating functional parts in various fields: prototyping, modeling, the production of functional parts, etc. The recommended nozzle temperature for printing with CPE plastic should range from 230 to 260 °C. The print platform temperature may vary depending on the printer and nozzle size—often it is in the range of 70 to 85 °C.

— Flex. A type of thermoplastic based on polyurethane, the main feature of which is the flexibility and elasticity of finished products—hence the name. The properties of Flex are often compared to hard silicone: it is not afraid of impacts, insensitive to oil, gasoline, and many other aggressive liquids, wear-resistant, and durable (although the operating temperature for finished products from this type of plastic averages up to 100 °C). This material is quite suitable for FDM printing (see "Printing Technology"), but it requires special settings; thus, it is better to choose printers where compatibility with Flex plastic is directly stated.

— HIPS. A material used as auxiliary—for creating supports under parts located in the air. Compatibility with HIPS may mean that the printer has more than one extruder: in such cases, the main material is fed through one nozzle, and the support material through another. However, there are models with a single nozzle compatible with this type of plastic—where the supports and the main product are printed alternately. In any case, after printing is complete, HIPS supports can be removed with a special solvent. In this respect, this type of thermoplastic is somewhat more complex to use than the similarly applied PVA (see below), which dissolves in regular water; on the other hand, ordinary citric acid can be used as a solvent for HIPS, and its moisture resistance simplifies the storage of consumables. Also, it is recommended to use this material exclusively in combination with ABS: the latter has similar printing requirements and is not damaged by HIPS solvents.

— PC. Polycarbonate (PolyCarbonate) plastic from the group of amorphous thermoplastics with high transparency. PC is one of the popular materials used for creating transparent or translucent parts (lenses, protective helmets for cycling and motorsport, lighting products, etc.). Polycarbonate boasts excellent impact resistance and high temperature resistance, does not react with many chemicals, and provides good electrical insulation. PC plastic has a high melting temperature (from 150 °C), and its fluidity is achieved at temperatures around 280 – 300 °C.

— PETG. There are also designations PET, PETT. All of these are varieties of the same material: PET is original polyethylene, PETG is supplemented with glycol to reduce brittleness and simplify printing (making it the most popular variety in 3D printers), while PETT is transparent and significantly stiffer than PETG. In any case, based on their main features, these types of thermoplastics are something in between the popular ABS and PLA: they are simpler to use than the first option and more plastic than the second. The main disadvantages of PETG are its tendency to accumulate moisture (in this respect, this material is similar to nylon) and less resistance to scratches than the same ABS.

— PP. Polypropylene is quite popular in various plastic products, but it has not gained widespread use in 3D printing—primarily due to significant shrinkage and difficulties ensuring the necessary quality of layer bonding. Moreover, PP does not tolerate low temperatures well. At the same time, this material has advantages: it is resistant to abrasion, has decent strength, and is safe in production and chemically inert.

— PVA. Material known to many from school glue. In 3D printing, it is used in printers similarly to the above-described HIPS: PVA is used to print supports and other auxiliary elements that need to be removed from the finished product. At the same time, this material has two important advantages over HIPS. Firstly, PVA dissolves in water, eliminating the need to look for special solvents. Secondly, it can be used not only with ABS but also with other thermoplastics. The main drawback of this material is again related to water solubility: PVA needs to be stored in the driest conditions possible since even high humidity can deteriorate its properties.

— SBS. A relatively new type of thermoplastic, the main feature of which is transparency: SBS can be used to create products that are almost indistinguishable from glass (including stained in different colors). Moreover, this material is more flexible and elastic than ABS, which can be an advantage both in finished products and during printing: the filament entering the extruder will not break even with strong bending or significant stretching. The strength of SBS is quite high, and due to its chemical inertness, it is even suitable for food dishes. The main drawbacks of this material are the relatively high printing temperature and low layer adhesion, complicating the process.

— TPE. A thermoplastic elastomer that combines plastic and rubber properties. TPE boasts high elasticity and flexibility, allowing it to be used for creating flexible and resilient parts that can deform under pressure and return to their original shape. It is used for making seals and gaskets, elastic parts of toys, footwear, mobile gadget cases, and automotive parts (including interior elements and tires). TPE is characterized by hypoallergenic properties, resistance to scratches, and good adhesion qualities.

— Wood. A variety of PLA plastic (see above), which contains fine wood dust. As a result, products made from such material feel very similar to wood, and visually they can be almost indistinguishable. Another interesting feature is that you can vary the material's shade by changing the extruder temperature: increasing the heat results in the darkening of the wood particles. The main properties of Wood are similar to PLA, but the amount of sawdust can vary; the higher it is, the closer the finished product is to wood, but the lower its flexibility and strength. One of the disadvantages of this material is its relatively low strength. It should also be taken into account that Wood is poorly compatible with narrow nozzles (they tend to clog with wood particles).

— PC. Polycarbonate is one of the most popular plastic varieties worldwide and one of the most durable and reliable materials used in 3D printing. Besides mechanical strength, it is resistant to heating. On the flip side, the printing temperature must also be quite high, and it must be carefully controlled due to considerable shrinkage; due to the material's hygroscopicity, low humidity must also be maintained during work. All this significantly complicates printing, so polycarbonate is used quite rarely in this format.

— PC/ABS. A mixture of two types of plastic, designed to make polycarbonate more suitable for 3D printing while retaining its main advantages. Products made from this material are strong, rigid, impact-resistant, and heat-resistant; the printing process, while quite complex, is nevertheless significantly simpler than that of pure PC.

— Carbon (Carbon Fiber). A composite material based on carbon fibers supplemented with a thermoplastic filler—usually nylon, although other types of 3D plastic (ABS, PLA, etc.) can also be used. The specific properties of such material depend on the filler composition and the percentage of fibers, but there are common features. On one hand, such material is quite expensive, but at the same time, it is stronger and more reliable than the corresponding plastic without carbon fiber; many varieties of carbon fiber are successfully used for fully functional parts operating under high loads. Additionally, carbon fiber gives the material resilience. On the other hand, special high-hardness nozzles are required for printing—made of stainless steel or with a ruby tip; softer materials wear out quickly due to the abrasive properties of carbon fiber.

— TPU. A material from the class of so-called plastic elastomers based on polyurethane. Compared to other materials in the same class, it differs by being more rigid and, on the other hand, stronger and more resistant to low temperatures. Meanwhile, TPU is sufficiently flexible and elastic when compared to thermoplastics in general, not just polyurethane plastic elastomers.

— PEEK. A semi-crystalline thermoplastic characterized by high strength, resistance to chemical and thermal effects, and abrasion resistance. Thanks to such properties, PEEK can be used in parts that experience significant loads—moving parts of mechanical transmissions and even automotive engine parts. On the other hand, its high melting point requires high printing temperature and a closed thermal chamber, and the material itself is expensive. As a result, this type of thermoplastic is practically not used in household 3D printers, its main application being in professional fields.

— HDPE. A type of polyethylene, known as low-pressure (high-density) polyethylene. A very popular material among modern plastics, used in plastic bottles, many types of food packaging, etc.; however, it is not popular in 3D printing. This is due to a number of layering complexities: HDPE solidifies very quickly, requiring high-speed printing—otherwise, adhesion between layers may be insufficient. In addition, this type of polyethylene is highly prone to shrinkage, so printing requires uniform heating of the entire model—and this requires a closed work chamber and heated platform. On the other hand, printing consumables are very cheap; they can be obtained by simple recycling of household waste (the same plastic bottles).

— CoPET. A type of polyethylene that differs somewhat in production technology from regular PET. According to the creators, this achieves higher reliability, durability, and resistance to environmental influences than ABS and especially PLA. However, CoPET is inexpensive and easy to use, having a relatively low melting point and excellent layer adhesion. On the other hand, the operating temperatures of finished products are also not high—no more than 60 °C. Furthermore, this material is difficult to post-process and resistant to standard solvents, while the solvents acting on it are banned from free sale in many countries.

— POM. An industrial-level material characterized by high strength, low friction, and resistance to cold. Thanks to this, you can even print gears and other similar parts (including those subjected to significant mechanical stress), as well as bearing elements from POM. On the other hand, the printing procedure itself is quite complex, requiring a closed chamber with careful temperature control due to the material's high shrinkage. Moreover, a POM part is difficult to anchor to the print bed due to low adhesion: a quality adhesive is required, which is not easy to find.

— Rubber. A thermoplastic that resembles rubber or latex in its properties and is similar to the above-described Flex-type plastic. However, compared to "flex," Rubber is even softer and more elastic; at the same time, it is strong and well-resistant to damage (although, for the same reason, it is difficult to process mechanically). A typical example of this material's application is wheel printing; besides, it is highly resistant to solvents and effectively withstands even quite aggressive environments, for which less resistant materials are unsuitable. A clear disadvantage of this type of plastic is its high printing temperature.

File format for 3D models that the printer can handle.

Projects of 3D models are created using special programs (CAD — computer-aided design systems), while such programs can use different file formats, often incompatible with each other. This information can be useful both for selecting CAD for a specific printer model, and for assessing whether ready-made projects are suitable for printing on the selected model.

Among the most common file extensions nowadays (in alphabetical order) are — .3ds, .amf, .ctl, .dae, .fbx, .gcode, .obj, .slc, .stl, .ply, .vrml, .zrp.

Software for building models which the printer is optimally compatible with. The software used for 3D printing includes both CAD (automatic design systems for creating models) and slicers (software that break a three-dimensional model into separate layers, preparing it for printing). Therefore, this paragraph often indicates a whole list of software products.

Note that the degree of optimization in this case may be different: some models are compatible only with the claimed programs, but many printers are able to work with third-party CAD systems. However, it is best to choose software directly claimed by the manufacturer: this will maximize the capabilities of the printer and minimize the chance of failures and “inconsistencies” during operation.

The maximum dimensions of a product that can be printed on a 3D printer in one cycle.

The larger the dimensions of the model, the wider the choice for the user, the greater the variety of sizes available for printing. On the other hand, "large-sized" printers take a lot of space, and this parameter significantly affects the cost of the device. In addition, while printing a large model with FDM/FFF (see "Printing Technology"), larger nozzles and higher print speeds are desirable — and these features negatively affect detailing and the print quality of tiny objects. Therefore, while choosing, you should not aim the utmost maximum sizes — you should realistically assess the dimensions of the objects that you're going to print, and proceed from these data (plus a small margin in case of unexpected moments). In addition, we note that a large product can be printed in parts, and then piece these parts together.

The largest volume of an object that can be printed on a printer. This indicator directly depends on the maximum dimensions (see above) — usually, it corresponds to these dimensions multiplied by each other. For example, dimensions of 230x240x270 mm will correspond to a volume of 23*24*27 = 14,904 cm³, that is, 14.9 litres.

The exact meaning of this indicator depends on the printing technology used (see above). These data are fundamental for photopolymer technologies SLA and DLP, as well as for powder SHS: the volume of the model corresponds to the amount of photopolymer/powder that needs to be loaded into the printer to print the product to the maximum height. If the size is smaller, this amount may decrease proportionally (for example, printing a model at half the maximum height will require half the volume), however, some printers require a full load regardless of the size of the product. In turn, for FDM/FFF and other similar technologies, the volume of the model is more of a reference value: the actual material consumption there will depend on the configuration of the printed product.

As for specific figures, the volume up to 5 litres can be considered as small, from 5 to 10 litres — medium, more than 10 litres — large.

Maximum heating temperature in 3D printers with heated bed (for more details, see the relevant paragraph). The higher the limit, the more varieties of plastic can be used for printing. So, models with heating up to 100 °C are suitable for 3D printing with PLA plastic, with a bed temperature of 100 to 120 °C — for working with ABS plastic and nylon, high-temperature ones — allow the use of polycarbonate and refractory varieties of plastic.

Additional features of the printer.

The list of the most popular features in modern 3D printers includes, in particular, a heated bed, a closed chamber, object scanning, a built-in camera, an LCD display (including touch), filament sensor, as well as resuming print function. Here is a more detailed description of these features:

— Heated bed. The availability of heating in the printing platform — the surface that is used as a support for the model to be built. This feature is found mainly in FDM/FFF printers (see "Printing Technology") and similar. The heated table ensures smooth and uniform cooling of the material, reducing the chance of deformations in completed models; this is especially important using materials with significant shrinkage. Also note that this feature is especially effective when combined with a closed print chamber (see below).

— Closed chamber. Operating area with a closed design. The specific designof such a chamber can be different — from a platform fenced on four sides to a sealed compartment where you can even create a vacuum for some specific printing methods. These nuances should be clarified separately. Anyway, the closed...chamber protects the printed product from dust, moisture and other contaminants; but the more specific meaning of this feature may be different — depending on the printing technology (see above). So, in FFF/FDM printers and similar devices, the closed design allows to achieve more uniform cooling of the workpiece and avoids deformation due to material shrinkage. And almost all SLA and DLP units have such a design — even in the simplest models of this category, the operating area is covered at least with a light filter that protects the user from bright light.

— Object scanning. Built-in 3D scanner that allows you to create “digital masks” of various objects. The printer can recreate then a copy of the scanned item, based on that masks. This function actually turns the device into a three-dimensional copier: the user does not need to build a model in a CAD programme, it is enough to have a sample for copying. However, if necessary, the digital image can be edited — usually, the scanner allows you to transfer the received data to the same CAD programs.

— Built-in camera. Own digital camera installed directly into the printer and aimed at the operating area. Designed to capture the workflow; most often it allows you to shoot both photos and videos, but it's ok to clarify the specific shooting capabilities separately. Regarding the use of cameras, it is worth noting that printers with such equipment usually also have Wi-Fi modules and/or LAN network connectivity (see "Data Transfer"). This allows you to transfer the captured video over a local network or even over the Internet (these details, again, should be clarified for each model), and further use of the footage depends primarily on the user's desire. One of the most popular ways to use this is remote control of printing: if you have a camera, you can monitor the process without having to go to the printer once again. In addition, the data from the camera (live or recorded) can be used as a demonstration, as a visual aid for training/instruction, etc.

— Resume printing. A feature that allows you to continue the printing process after it has been stopped. It is useful primarily in cases where the printer is used at strictly defined hours — for example, during working hours; it can also come in handy if the printer is turned off due to a power failure. The second option is fairly obvious; and regarding the first, we should remind that 3D printing is a rather continuous process, and the creation of even a small product takes hours. Because of this, situations often arise when a work day (or other similar period of time) is not enough to complete the work. In such situations, the resume printing feature is useful: the printer can be paused for the duration of the absence, and to resume the process with returning to the printer. However, it should be noted that operating with some filaments, interruptions in work are undesirable; so if you plan to use this function, it's ok to clarify its compatibility with the preferred filament.

— Filament sensor. Sensor for controlling the supply of plastic filament during the printing process. As a rule, such a sensor is installed on the extruder (print head). If the filament suddenly runs out or its supply is interrupted, the sensor will prevent the print from failing due to lack of material - if it detects a lack of filament, it transmits a signal to stop the print so that the user can add filament and resume the process.

Data transfer methods provided in the 3D printer design. We are talking primarily about data relating to the model being printed (from which the printer directly prints), in some cases also about setting up the device and other ways of interacting with it; For more details, see individual list items.

As for specific options, in addition to the traditional communication to a PC via USB or USB type C, modern printers may provide data transfer methods such as a card reader, its own USB port, a network communication via LAN, as well as a wireless communication via Wi-Fi. Here are the features of each of these options:

- Card reader. The printer has its own memory card slot. Most often designed to work with popular SD cards; however, even such media have several varieties, so it would not hurt to check the range of supported cards separately. In any case, the main purpose of this function is direct printing: by installing a card with a recorded project file in the printer, you can make a model without even connecting the device to a computer. There may be other ways to use the card reader - for example, copying materials from a model scanner to external media (see “Functions and capabilities”). Note that this function is convenient mainly...for exchanging data with a laptop - a slot for memory cards is available in almost any modern laptop.

- USB. Own USB connector on the printer body. It is used similarly to the card reader described above - for working with external media, in this case “flash drives” and other similar devices. The methods for using the USB port are also similar - mainly direct printing, but other options are also possible (copying data from a scanner, updating firmware, etc.).

— USB type C. Availability of a USB type C port in the interface communication shelf of the device. Such connectors are smaller in size compared to classic USB, and they also have a convenient double-sided design that allows you to connect the plug to either side. USB type C is supposed to be used to connect a 3D printer to a computer or mobile gadgets for managing and transferring printed files. At the same time, this connector can be used to connect external storage media.

- Wi-Fi. A wireless communication module that can be used both to connect the printer to local networks and for direct communication with tablets, laptops and other gadgets. Specific capabilities should be clarified separately, but here we note that a network communication allows you to use the printer as a common device for all computers on the local network and even access it from the Internet (although the latter may require specific settings). At the same time, Wi-Fi is a more convenient alternative to a wired LAN (see below), as it allows you to do without laying wires. As for direct communication with another gadget, this option is less common. It usually provides the ability to send projects for printing and access to basic settings; and to use such control, you may need to install a special application.

— Connection to PC (USB). Connecting to the USB port of a PC or laptop is the most popular way to directly connect a 3D printer to similar devices. The vast majority of modern computers are equipped with ports of this type, and even connectors of the outdated version of USB 2.0, not to mention newer standards, are enough to work with a printer. The communication itself can be used both to send print jobs and to control operating parameters - and it is through a PC/laptop that detailed settings that are not accessible through the screen on the printer itself are usually implemented. In addition, if necessary, you can share access to the unit via a computer via a local network or the Internet - even if the printer itself does not have a LAN connector or a Wi-Fi module. This is much more difficult to organize and not as convenient as using a network model with a direct communication to the local area, but it eliminates the need to overpay for additional connectivity options in the printer itself.

— Connection to PC (LAN). Connection to external devices via LAN - a standard connector for wired communication to computer networks. Actually, such a communication is intended mainly for using the printer as a network device - when access to printing and settings can be obtained from different computers on a local network, or even via the Internet. LAN is less convenient to connect than Wi-Fi, as it requires cabling, but this communication is more reliable and does not suffer from the presence of a large number of wireless devices nearby. In addition, the cable can be useful if the Wi-Fi router or access point does not reach the printer location.
Note that the standard use of LAN involves connecting to a network router, but a direct communication to a computer is also possible. The second option allows you to use this connector similarly to the USB described above - that is, only for one computer; but if this computer is connected to a local network and/or the Internet, you can also configure network access to the printer.

Rated input power of the printer, in fact — the highest power consumed by the device in regular operation.

This indicator is directly related to the specs of the device, primarily the overall performance. However, generally, 3D printers are a relatively economical devices: among solutions that are not related to specialized industrial equipment, values of more than 1 kW are extremely rare, and even in the most performant models this figure does not exceed 3 kW. For such capacities, an ordinary household power outlet is quite enough, so you have to pay attention to power consumption mainly in specific cases — for example, when assessing the load on a voltage stabilizer or a backup power source.