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The 3D printing technology used by the printer.

Nowadays, the most widely used technologies are Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM/FFF), Plastic Inkjet Printing (PJP), Colour Inkjet Printing (CJP), Multi-Jet Modeling (MJM), Digital Light Processing (DLP), Stereolithography (SLA), and selective thermal sintering (SHS). Here is a more detailed description for each of them:

— Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM/FFF). The most common 3D printing technology so far. The principle of such printing is as follows: the working material (thermoplastic) in the form of a thread is fed into the extruder, where it melts due to heating and is printed through a special nozzle of small diameter. If necessary, lines within one layer are laid side by side, forming a continuous surface of the required area; for overhung elements, temporary supports made of the same plastic that are removed manually after the end of the process. The popularity of this type is primarily due to the low cost of both the printers and their consumables, which allows such printing to be used in almost all areas — from domestic use to industrial production. In addition, many types of thermoplastics can be used for FDM/FFF, as well as the wide variety of colours. The disadvantages of this technology include less accuracy than that of “photopolymer” SLA and DLP,...but this point is not critical in most cases.
Note that the common designation for this technology "FDM" is a trademark; to circumvent restrictions of use, individual manufacturers use the “FFF” label, which generally has the same meaning.

— Plastic Inkjet Printing (PJP). In fact, that is another name for the FDM technology described above, used by 3D Systems and some other manufacturers. There are no fundamental differences.

— Colour Inkjet Printing (CJP). A type of inkjet 3D printing that allows you to create multi-colour products; proprietary development of 3D Systems. The general principle of inkjet 3D printing is as follows: a thin (about 0.1 mm) layer of powder material is applied to the working platform, and then a liquid binder is applied to this material through the nozzle of the print head (as a similar process in an inkjet printer). Then the platform is lowered by the thickness of the layer and the cycle is repeated until the product is ready. Print heads with multiple nozzles and binders of different colours are used for colour inkjet printing, which allows you to create products of a wide variety of shades. This printing method is highly accurate both in terms of shapes and colours; it is used even in puppet animation. On the other hand, CJP printers are expensive, so their use is mostly limited to professional applications.

— Stereolithography (SLA). One of the types of 3D printing based on the use of photopolymer resins — liquid materials that solidify when exposed to light. The light source in this case is a laser, and printing is carried out as follows. There is a movable platform with the container filled with photopolymer. At the beginning of the process, the platform surface is at a depth of one layer (about 0.1 mm ± 0.05 mm). The laser traces the contours of this layer on the surface of the resin, causing the material to solidify; the platform is then lowers to the depth of another layer, and the process is repeated until the product is finished. (The platform can also move up, but the general scheme of work remains the same). The main advantage of SLA is the highest precision, which makes it possible to use this technology even in dentistry and jewelry. At the same time, the speed of such printing is quite high, and modern photopolymers are very diverse, in finished form they can imitate various materials (plastic, rubber, etc.). On the other hand, both the printers and their consumables are very expensive.

— Digital Light Processing (DLP). Another type of 3D printing using photopolymers. The principle of operation is similar to the SLA described above: the product is formed in layers from a special resin that solidifies under the light. The difference lies in the fact that instead of laser emitters, DLP printers use LED-based projectors. This made it possible to significantly reduce the cost of such equipment while keeping all the main advantages of photopolymer 3D printing — high accuracy, good speed and a variety of materials (in terms of colours and properties). The low spread of this technology is mainly due to the fact that it appeared relatively recently.

— Multi-Jet Modeling (MJM). 3D printing technology based on the use of a print head with numerous nozzles (tens or even hundreds). Print media may vary; in modern models, photopolymers are most often used (like so in SLA and DLP), as well as low-melting wax, although it is also possible to work with thermoplastics (as in FDM/FFF). Anyway, the materials are applied in layers; when working with photopolymers, each layer is fixed using UV light. It is possible to print simultaneously with several materials — this facilitates work with overhung elements and supports for them: wax can be used for supports, which is then easily melted out of the finished product. Generally, MJM printers have high accuracy (comparable to SLA) with less material consumption, while they are excellent for even fairly large parts. On the other hand, the cost of such devices and consumables for them (photopolymers) turns out to be quite high, besides, MJM printers are difficult to maintain and repair. Therefore, the main scope of their application is professional prototyping in industry.

— Selective Heat Sintering (SHS). A technology that is similar to the CJP described above. A special powder (thermoplastic or fusible metal) is used as a consumable. At the beginning of the process, the powder is applied with a roller to the working platform with the thickness of one layer; then the heat emitter processes the material along the given shapes, the platform is lowered down to the thickness of the next layer, and the cycle is repeated until the complete model is formed. In fact, SHS is a simplification of the SLS technology, where a laser was used for sintering: the use of a thermal head instead of a laser head made it possible to significantly simplify and reduce the cost of the printer design. Also note that for the overhung elements, it is not necessary to print additional supports — the unused powder plays the role of these supports. The disadvantages of SHS include the limited choice of materials: a thermal emitter is not as efficient as a laser one, which requires the use of fusible materials. Metal products printed on such a printer may require additional processing to give the desired durability and heat resistance.

Filament materials for which the 3D printer is designed.

Most developed 3D printing technologies (see above) involve the use of more than one material, and these materials differ markedly in properties. Therefore, the choice of materials is limited not only by technology, but also by the capabilities of a specific printer, and this parameter cannot be neglected while choosing. Today, you can mainly find devices designed for such materials (in alphabetical order): ABS пластик, ASA, BVOH, Carbon, CPE, Flex, HIPS, Nylon, PC, PETG, PLA, PP, PVA, SBS, TPE, Wood, photopolymer resin. A separate category is food 3D printers that allow you to create sculptures from chocolate, cream, etc.

Here is a description of the materials that have received the most distribution nowadays (both those mentioned above and some others):

— ABS. One o...f the most common types of thermoplastic nowadays; quite popular in 3D printing. At a low cost, ABS is very practical: completed products are durable, quite resistant to deformation and shock, insensitive to moisture and many aggressive liquids (alkalis, oils, a large amount of detergents); they also have a good temperature range of operation (on average of -40 to 90 °C). And for melting such plastic, relatively low temperatures are required. There are three main disadvantages of ABS. Firstly, it is sensitivity to direct sunlight and rapid deterioration in such conditions (although it all depends on the particular variety). Secondly, this material emits harmful fumes when heated — so it is advisable to use protective equipment during operation, or at least provide effective room ventilation . Thirdly, ABS tends to stick strongly to the printing table, which requires the use of various additional tricks — heating the table, using special thermal tape, etc. Also note that completed products made of this material have a rough surface, but this can be an advantage — depending on the situation.

— PLA. Another popular material for 3D printing, a direct competitor to ABS. One of the key advantages of PLA is its eco-friendliness: it is made from vegetable raw materials (mainly corn and sugar cane), is biodegradable and safe when heated. In addition, this type of thermoplastic has a lower melting point and practically does not stick to the printing table. On the other hand, the downside of the mentioned environmental friendliness is a limited service life: PLA plastic decays rather quickly (from several weeks to several years, depending on the variety). Other notable cons are the price (almost twice as high as ABS) and fragility (which makes printing somewhat more difficult — a strongly bent thread breaks easily). It is also worth keeping in mind that this type of plastic does not dissolve in acetone and requires other solvents.

— Photopolymer resin. A material used for printing using SLA and DLP technologies (see "Printing Technology"), as well as widely used in MJM printers, where it has almost replaced thermoplastics. The name is due to the fact that the initial state of such a material has a liquid consistency, and it solidifies (polymerizes) under the influence of intense lighting. Nowadays, there is a wide variety of photopolymer resins that differ in technological characteristics (viscosity, setting speed, sensitivity to light) and practical features (a solid photopolymer can have the properties of different materials). Anyway, using such materials for printing is very accurate, but photopolymers are much more expensive than thermoplastics.

— Nylon. Nylon has been used in 3D printing relatively not long ago, thats why it is less common than other popular thermoplastics. Compared to ABS, this material requires higher temperatures, emits more harmful substances, and when completed it tends to accumulate moisture and lose durability, which puts forward certain restrictions on use. On the other hand, nylon products are not as hard, that is in some cases becomes an advantage — particularly, in medical applications: splints and prostheses with a characteristic mesh structure can be printed of this material, combining lightness and durability.

And here is a detailed description of the rest, more rare materials:

— ASA. A weather-resistant material designed to remove the main con of ABS — sensitivity to environmental influences (primarily sunlight). The result is a fairly durable and rigid material, which at the same time is quite easy to print and does not lose its properties during prolonged exposure to the open air. ASA products are even suitable for automotive applications; another pros of this type of thermoplastic is very little shrinkage during cooling. Disadvantage of ASA filament is a higher cost rate than ABS.

— BVOH. An auxiliary water-soluble filament used for printing support structures with protrusions and overhangs, as well as moving mechanisms. BVOH is an acronym for Butenediol Vinyl Alcohol Copolymer. Flament has excellent interlayer adhesion and sinteres well with the material of the model itself, so that the supports do not peel off from the part during the 3D printing process. The optimal extrusion temperature for this plastic is in the range from 210 to 220 °C. The material easily dissolves in ordinary water - it can be used to create a strong base in areas where support is required, and to obtain a smooth surface without filament residue when used in printing with other types of plastic (PLA, ABS and PET).

— Carbon. A polymer-based printing material with the addition of carbon fiber, developed by Carbon Inc and given the same name. It is an excellent alternative to Nylon plastic, has high interlayer adhesion and low deformation shrinkage. Carbon also has high strength and temperature resistance. This material is used to create functional parts, prototypes, tools, mechanically loaded parts, housings for various devices, parts for repairing household appliances in a wide variety of industries (including automotive, medicine, etc.). Carbon plastic is suitable for almost all models of desktop 3D printers.

— CPE. CPE copolyester is a chemically resistant and relatively durable printing material characterized by high impact strength and temperature resistance. It usually includes polyethylene (PE) and polyester in varying proportions. CPE has good strength and flexibility, which makes it suitable for creating functional parts in various fields: prototyping, modeling, production of functional parts, etc. The recommended nozzle temperature for printing with CPE plastic should be between 230 and 260 °C. The temperature of the print bed can vary depending on the printer and nozzle size - it is often in the range of 70 to 85 °C.

— Flex. A type of thermoplastic based on polyurethane, the main feature is the flexibility and elasticity of completed products — hence the name. In terms of its properties, Flex is often compared with solid silicone: it is not afraid of impacts, is insensitive to oil, gasoline and many other aggressive liquids, wearproof and durable (except that the operating temperature for completed products of this type of plastic is in range up to 100 °C). This material is quite suitable for FDM printing (see "Printing Technology"), however, it requires special settings; therefore, to use Flex-plastic, it is best to choose printers with compatibility is directly stated.

— HIPS. Material used as an secondary — to create supports of the overhung parts. HIPS compatibility can mean that the printer has more than one extruder: one nozzle feeds the base material in such cases, the other feeds the support material. However, there are also models for one nozzle that are compatible with this type of plastic — the printing of supports and the main product is carried out alternately. However, once printing is complete, the HIPS supports can be removed with a special solvent. Regarding this, HIPS is somewhat more difficult to use than the similar PVA (see below), which dissolves in water; on the other hand, ordinary citric acid can be used as a solvent for HIPS, and moisture resistance simplifies the safekeeping of consumables. Also note that this material is recommended to be used only in combination with ABS: the last one has similar requirements for printing mode and is not damaged by solvents for HIPS.

— PC. Polycarbonate plastic (PolyCarbonate) from the group of amorphous thermoplastics with a high degree of transparency. PC is one of the popular materials used to create transparent or translucent parts (lenses, protective helmets for cycling and motorsports, lighting products, etc.). Polycarbonate has excellent impact resistance and resistance to high temperatures, does not react with many chemicals, and is a good insulator of electricity. PC plastic has a high melting point (from 150 °C), and its fluidity is achieved at temperatures of about 280 - 300 °C.

— PETG. There are also designations as PET, PETT. These are all varieties of the same material: PET is the original polyethylene, PETG is supplemented with glycol to reduce fragility and make printing easier (which makes it the most spread variety in 3D printers), and PETT is transparent and noticeably harder than PETG. Anyway, in terms of their main features, these types of thermoplastics are something in between the popular ABS and PLA: they are easier to use than the first type, and more plastic than the second one. The main disadvantages of PETG are the tendency to accumulate moisture (regarding this PETG is similar to nylon) and less scratch resistant than the ABS.

— PP. Polypropylene is very popular in various plastic products, but has not gained much popularity in 3D printing, mainly due to significant shrinkage and difficulties in ensuring the desired quality of the layers connection. In addition, PP does not tolerate low temperatures well. At the same time, this material also has advantages: it resists abrasion well, has good durability, and is also safe to manufacture and chemically inert.

— PVA. A material known to many by PVA stationery glue. In 3D printing, it is used as a secondary one, similar to the HIPS described above: supports and other auxiliary elements are printed from PVA, which must be removed of the completed product. At the same time, this material has two important advantages over HIPS. Firstly, PVA dissolves in water, which eliminates the need to look for special solvents. Secondly, it can be used not only with ABS, but also with other thermoplastics. The main disadvantage of this material is associated, again, with solubility in water: PVA must be safekeeped in the most dry conditions, since even high humidity can worsen its properties.

— SBS. A relatively new type of thermoplastic, which the main feature is transparency: it is possible to create products from SBS that are practically indistinguishable from glass (including painted in different colours). In addition, this material is more flexible and elastic than ABS, which is an advantage both in finished products and in the printing process: the filament entering the extruder will not break even with a strong bend or significant stretch. The durability of SBS is quite high, and due to its chemical inertness, it is suitable even for tableware. The main drawbacks of this material are the rather high printing temperature and low adhesion between layers, which makes the process more difficult.

- TPE. Thermoplastic elastomer, combining the properties of plastic and rubber in one bottle. TPE has high elasticity and flexibility, which allows this material to be used to create flexible and resilient parts that can deform under pressure and return to their original shape. It is used for the manufacture of seals and gaskets, elastic parts of toys, shoes, covers for mobile gadgets, automobile parts (including interior elements and tires). TPE is characterized by anti-allergenic properties, scratch resistance, and good adhesive properties.

— Wood. A type of PLA plastic (see above), which contains fine wood dust. Due to this, products made of such material are very similar on touch to wood, and outwardly they can be almost indistinguishable. Another interesting feature is that adjusting the temperature of the extruder, you can change the shade of the material: increased heating leads to a darkening of the wood contained in the composition. The main properties of Wood are similar to PLA, but the amount of sawdust may be different; the higher it is, the closer the completed product is to wood, but the lower leads to elasticity and durability. Actually, one of the disadvantages of this material is its relatively low durability. It is also worth considering that Wood is poorly compatible with narrow nozzles (they tend to clog with wood particles).

— PC. Polycarbonate is one of the world's most popular plastics and one of the most durable and reliable materials used in 3D printing. In addition to mechanical strength, it is resistant to heat. On the other hand, the printing temperature must also be quite high, and it must be carefully controlled due to significant shrinkage; and due to the hygroscopicity of the material during operation, it is also necessary to maintain low humidity. All this significantly complicates printing, so polycarbonate is used very rarely in this format.

— PC/ABS. A blend of two plastics designed to make polycarbonate more suitable for 3D printing while maintaining its core values. Products of this material are durable, rigid, resistant to shock and heat; and the printing procedure, although quite complicated, is still much simpler than with a pure PC.

– Carbon (Carbon Fibre). A composite material based on carbon fibers supplemented with a thermoplastic filler — usually nylon, although other types of 3D plastic (ABS, PLA, etc.) also can be used. The specific properties of such a material depend on the composition of the filler and the percentage of fibers, but there are also common features. On the one hand, such a material is quite expensive, but at the same time it is more durable and reliable than the corresponding plastic without carbon fibre; many varieties of carbon are successfully used for full-featured parts operating under high loads. In addition, carbon fibre gives the material elasticity. On the other hand, printing requires special nozzles of high hardness — stainless steel or with a ruby tip; softer materials wear off quickly due to the abrasive properties of carbon fibre.

— TPU. The material of the class of so-called plastic elastomers based on polyurethane. It differs from other materials of the same class in higher rigidity, durability and resistance to low temperatures. At the same time, TPU is quite flexible and elastic compared to thermoplastics in general, and not just to polyurethane plastic elastomers.

— PEEK. Thermoplastic semi-crystalline type, characterized by high durability, resistance to chemical and thermal influences, as well as abrasion. Due to these properties, PEEK can be used in parts that suffer significant loads — moving parts of mechanical transmissions and even parts of automobile engines. On the other hand, infusibility requires high printing temperatures and a closed heat chamber, and the filament itself is expensive. Because of this, this type of thermoplastic is practically not used in household 3D printers, and its main application is the professional sphere.

— HDPE. A kind of polyethylene, the so-called low pressure polyethylene (high density). A very popular material among modern plastics, used in plastic bottles, many types of food packaging, etc.; however, it is not popular in 3D printing. This is due to a number of difficulties in layer-by-layer application: HDPE solidifies very quickly, and that is why you need to print at high speed — otherwise adhesion between layers may be insufficient. In addition, this type of polyethylene is highly susceptible to shrinkage, so printing requires uniform heating of the entire model — and this requires a closed operating chamber and a heated platform. On the other hand, printing consumables are very cheap, they can be obtained by simple recycling of household waste (the plastic bottles, etc).

— CoPET. A kind of polyethylene, slightly different in production technology from conventional PET. According to the authors, the higher reliability, durability and resistance to environmental influences are achieved than ABS, and even more so PLA. At the same time, CoPET is inexpensive and easy to use, as it has a fairly low melting point and excellent adhesion between layers. On the other hand, the operating temperatures of completed products are also low — less than 60 °C. In addition, this material is difficult to post-process and does not lend itself to regular solvents, and usable solvents are prohibited from free sale in many countries.

— POM. Industrial grade filament featuring high durability, low friction and cold resistance. Thanks to this, even gears and other similar parts (including those subjected to significant mechanical loads), as well as bearing elements, can be printed from POM. On the other hand, the printing process itself is quite complex, requiring a closed chamber with careful temperature control, as the material is highly shrinkable. In addition, the POM part is difficult to fix on the printing table due to low adhesion: high-quality glue is required, which is not easy to find.

— Rubber. A thermoplastic that resembles rubber in its properties and is close to the Flex type plastic described above. However, in comparison with the "Flex" Rubber is even softer and more elastic; at the same time, it is durable and resists damage well (although, for the same reason, it is difficult to process). One of the examples of typical use of this material is the printing of wheels; in addition, it is very resistant to solvents and effectively resists even rather aggressive environment, where less resistant materials are not suitable. The univocal disadvantages of this type of plastic include, first of all, the high printing temperature.

File format for 3D models that the printer can handle.

Projects of 3D models are created using special programs (CAD — computer-aided design systems), while such programs can use different file formats, often incompatible with each other. This information can be useful both for selecting CAD for a specific printer model, and for assessing whether ready-made projects are suitable for printing on the selected model.

Among the most common file extensions nowadays (in alphabetical order) are — .3ds, .amf, .ctl, .dae, .fbx, .gcode, .obj, .slc, .stl, .ply, .vrml, .zrp.

Software for building models which the printer is optimally compatible with. The software used for 3D printing includes both CAD (automatic design systems for creating models) and slicers (software that break a three-dimensional model into separate layers, preparing it for printing). Therefore, this paragraph often indicates a whole list of software products.

Note that the degree of optimization in this case may be different: some models are compatible only with the claimed programs, but many printers are able to work with third-party CAD systems. However, it is best to choose software directly claimed by the manufacturer: this will maximize the capabilities of the printer and minimize the chance of failures and “inconsistencies” during operation.

The maximum dimensions of a product that can be printed on a 3D printer in one cycle.

The larger the dimensions of the model, the wider the choice for the user, the greater the variety of sizes available for printing. On the other hand, "large-sized" printers take a lot of space, and this parameter significantly affects the cost of the device. In addition, while printing a large model with FDM/FFF (see "Printing Technology"), larger nozzles and higher print speeds are desirable — and these features negatively affect detailing and the print quality of tiny objects. Therefore, while choosing, you should not aim the utmost maximum sizes — you should realistically assess the dimensions of the objects that you're going to print, and proceed from these data (plus a small margin in case of unexpected moments). In addition, we note that a large product can be printed in parts, and then piece these parts together.

As for the specific values of each size, all three main dimensions have the same division into nominal categories (small size, medium, above average and large): — height — less than 150 mm, 151 – 200 mm, 201 – 250 mm, more than 250 mm ; — width — less than 150 mm, 151 – 200 mm, 201 – 250 mm,...more than 250 mm ; — depth — less than 150 mm, 151 – 200 mm, 201 – 250 mm, more than 250 mm.

The largest volume of an object that can be printed on a printer. This indicator directly depends on the maximum dimensions (see above) — usually, it corresponds to these dimensions multiplied by each other. For example, dimensions of 230x240x270 mm will correspond to a volume of 23*24*27 = 14,904 cm³, that is, 14.9 litres.

The exact meaning of this indicator depends on the printing technology used (see above). These data are fundamental for photopolymer technologies SLA and DLP, as well as for powder SHS: the volume of the model corresponds to the amount of photopolymer/powder that needs to be loaded into the printer to print the product to the maximum height. If the size is smaller, this amount may decrease proportionally (for example, printing a model at half the maximum height will require half the volume), however, some printers require a full load regardless of the size of the product. In turn, for FDM/FFF and other similar technologies, the volume of the model is more of a reference value: the actual material consumption there will depend on the configuration of the printed product.

As for specific figures, the volume up to 5 litres can be considered as small, from 5 to 10 litres — medium, more than 10 litres — large.

The smallest thickness of a single layer of material that can be applied with a printer.

In photopolymer devices of SLA and DLP formats (see "Print Technology") the meaning of this parameter is simple: it is the smallest height of a one pass cycle of the working platform. The smaller this height, the better detailing can be achieved on the device; however, in such models, this height is usually small — most often less than 50 µm. But in devices based on FDM/FFF and similar technologies using nozzles, there are also higher rates — 51 – 100 µm and even more. Here it is worth noting the fact that a small minimum layer thickness allows efficient use of small nozzles and achieves better detail. On the other hand, increasing detailing reduces productivity, and to compensate this fact, it is necessary to increase the print speed by increasing power (both heating and blowing), which, in turn, affects the cost. Therefore, choosing one should proceed from real needs: for objects with relatively low detail, there is no need to look for a printer with a small layer thickness.

It is worth noting that in FDM/FFF printers, the optimal layer thickness depends on the nozzle diameter (see below) and the specifics of printing — for example, for a “in one line” perimeter without filling, you can use the minimum layer thickness, while for filling it is not recomme...nded. Detailed recommendations on the optimal layer thickness for different situations can be found in special guides.

The print speed provided by an FDM/FFF type 3D printer (see "Print Technology").

The print speed in this case is the maximum amount of material that can pass through a regular nozzle per second. The higher this value (150 mm/s, 180 mm/s , 200 mm/s and above), the faster the printer is able to cope with a particular task. Of course, the actual production time will depend on the configuration of the printing model and the print settings, but other things being equal, a printer with a higher speed will operate faster. On the other hand, an increase in speed requires an increase in heating power (because the extruder has time to melt the required volume of material), blowing power (otherwise the plastic will not have time to solidify normally), as well as stricter control of the movement of the extruder (to compensate for inertia from fast movements). So, generally, this spec strongly depends on the price category and specialization of the device, and it’s worth looking specifically for a “fast” model in cases where the speed of production is critical. Otherwise, a 100 mm/s model or 120 mm/s is sufficient, or even less.

The diameter of the regular working nozzle in a printer operating with the FDM/FFF or PJP technology (see "Printing Technology").

This is one of the key parameters that determine the capabilities of the printer. The width of separate lines in each layer and the optimal thickness of the layer itself are directly related to the nozzle diameter. So, with a small nozzle, these width and thickness will also be small, which allows the better detail, but reduces the actual print speed (as well as the durability of the completed product due to the increase in the number of joints). And large nozzles are better suited for high-volume tasks where print performance and design reliability are more important than high precision.

More detailed recommendations on choosing a diameter for a specific task and layer thickness can be found in special sources. It is also worth considering that many modern 3D printers allow you to change nozzles, and for more or less serious 3D printing, it is directly recommended to have several replacement nozzles in stock. Therefore, some models with several nozzles of different diameters are provided in one package.